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Ketamine is widely used in pediatric anesthesia, perioperative sedation, and analgesia. Knowledge of anesthesia neurotoxicity in humans is currently limited by the difficulty of obtaining neurons and performing developmental toxicity studies in fetal and pediatric populations. However, mouse embryonic stem cells (mESCs) derived from embryos at the preimplantation stage demonstrate an unlimited ability to self-renew and generate different cell types and are a valuable tool for clinical research. Thus, in this study, a model was employed t