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We also find clear evidence that sperm competition is associated with increases in all components of sperm length. We discuss these results in the context of different theoretical predictions and general patterns in the breeding biology and selective environment of sperm. This article is part of the theme issue 'Fifty years of sperm competition'.Males that exhibit alternative reproductive tactics (ARTs) often differ in the risk of sperm competition and the energetic trade-offs they experience. The resulting patterns of selection could